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observations.html
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observations.html
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<!DOCTYPE html>
<html>
<head>
<meta charset="utf-8">
<meta name="viewport" content="width=device-width, initial-scale=1">
<meta name="description" content="The site is intended as a free educational resource about the frontiers of galaxy formation." />
<meta name="keywords" content="observatories, telescope, observational astronomy, early universe, cosmic dawn, first galaxies, first stars, population 3, cosmology" />
<meta name="author" content="Erika Hoffman" />
<title>Observations Overview - Cosmic Dark to Cosmic Dawn</title>
<link rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" href="style.css" />
<link rel="icon" href="images/galaxy_icon_d.png">
</head>
<body>
<! ALTERED GRID 1 !>
<div class="grid_1">
<! TOP NAVIGATION !>
<header>
<nav class="navbar" style="grid-row:1;">
<a href="index.html"><h1 class="main-header">Cosmic Dark to Cosmic Dawn</h1></a>
</nav>
<nav class="navbar" style="grid-row:1;">
<ul style="padding-top: 27px; ">
<li><a href="dark_ages.html">What happened during the <span class="bold">Dark Ages?</span></a></li>
<li><a href="cosmic_dawn_1.html">How did the <span class="bold">first stars</span> form?</a></li>
<li><a href="cosmic_dawn_2.html">How did the <span class="bold">first galaxies</span> form?</a></li>
<li class="current"><a href="observations.html">How do we <span class="bold">observe</span> them?</a></li>
</ul>
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<div class="glos">
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<li>
<! THE DROPDOWN MENU !>
<div class="dropdown">
<button class="dropbtn">
Menu
</button>
<div class="dropdown-content">
<a href="index.html">Home</a>
<a href="dark_ages.html" class="dark_head">The Dark Ages</a>
<a href="big_bang_cmb.html" class="dark_cont">The Big Bang</a>
<a href="cosmic_web.html" class="dark_cont">The Cosmic Web</a>
<a href="exotic_physics.html" class="dark_cont">Exotic Physics</a>
<a href="cosmic_dawn_1.html" class="cd_1_head">Era of the First Stars</a>
<a href="first_stars.html" class="cd_1_cont">The First Stars</a>
<a href="first_black_holes.html" class="cd_1_cont">The First Black Holes</a>
<a href="light_fills_the_universe.html" class="cd_1_cont">Light Fills the Universe</a>
<a href="spin_flip.html" class="cd_1_cont">The Spin-Flip Backgound</a>
<a href="cosmic_dawn_2.html" class="cd_2_head">Era of First Galaxies</a>
<a href="first_galaxies.html" class="cd_2_cont">The First Galaxies</a>
<a href="larger_galaxies.html" class="cd_2_cont">Larger and Larger Galaxies</a>
<a href="epoch_of_reionization.html" class="cd_2_cont">Epoch of Reionization</a>
<a href="later_universe.html" class="later_head">The Later Universe</a>
<a href="cosmic_noon.html" class="later_cont">Galaxies at Cosmic Noon</a>
<a href="our_galaxy.html" class="later_cont">Our Galaxy: The Milky Way</a>
<a href="observations.html" class="obs_head">Obervations Overview</a>
<a href="radio_telescopes.html" class="obs_cont">Radio Telescopes</a>
<a href="lunar_telescopes.html" class="obs_cont">Lunar Radio Telescopes</a>
<a href="space_telescopes.html" class="obs_cont">Space Telescopes</a>
<a href="infrared_telescopes.html" class="obs_cont">Ground-Based Near-Infrared Telescopes</a>
<a href="other_telescopes.html" class="obs_cont">Other Telescopes</a>
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<a href="research.html">Research Overview</a>
<a href="group_members.html">Group Members</a>
<a href="collaborations.html">Collaborations</a>
<a href="codes_and_tools.html">Codes and Tools</a>
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<li><a href="glossary.html" class="dropbtn">Glossary</a></li>
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<! MAIN IMAGE AND TEXT !>
<section class="page">
<img src="images/Observations_img.png" style="width:100%;" />
</section>
<div class="grid_1">
<div class="intro_1" style="margin-top:0;">
<h1>How much has the distant universe been observed?</h1>
<p>
Astronomers have already devoted many resources to studying the first billion years of galaxy formation, but many mysteries remain. Fortunately, a host of new telescopes – involving powerful new technologies – will focus on these questions over the next several years, and we hope to learn a great deal more about them soon.
</p>
</div>
<div class="intro_2" style="margin-top:0;">
<h1>
What new observations are planned for the future?
</h1>
<p>
New efforts will include new space and ground telescopes to observe the first galaxies, as well as radio telescopes on Earth and the Moon aiming to observe the signatures of hydrogen in the early Universe. Read more below and in the following pages!
</p>
</div>
<! PAGE BEFORE / PAGE AFTER NAVIGATION >
<section class="page_nav" style="grid-row: 20;">
<a href="our_galaxy.html">Previous: Our Galaxy: The Milky Way</a>
<a href="radio_telescopes.html" style="float: right;">Next: Radio Telescopes </a>
</section>
</div>
<article class="obs_col" style="grid-template-rows: repeat();">
<div class="in_text_image_left_2" style=" background-image:url(images/HERA.jpg); background-repeat:no-repeat; background-size: cover; background-position:center; margin:0;">
</div>
<div class="text_right_2" style="padding: 6%; background-color: rgba(255, 216, 0, 0.49); margin:0;">
<h1><a href="radio_telescopes.html">Low-Frequency Radio Telescopes</a></h1>
<p>
During most of the Cosmic Dawn, the vast majority of matter in the Universe remained outside of galaxies, and to measure its properties we must use different techniques. Amongst the most exciting is to study the spin-flip background generated by these atoms, which we hope to observe with radio telescopes operating in a similar frequency range to television antennas. Such observations are extremely challenging, in part because of interference from Earth, but telescopes are already attempting them.
</p>
<p class="img_cred_body">
Image: HERA, 2016
<br />Credit: <a href="https://reionization.org" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">HERA Construction Photo log</a>
</p>
</div>
<div class="in_text_image_right_3" style="background-image:url(images/dapper.jpg); background-repeat:no-repeat; background-position:center; background-size: cover; margin:0;">
</div>
<div class="text_left_3" style="padding: 6%; background-color: rgba(0, 0, 0, 0); margin: 0;">
<h1><a href="lunar_telescopes.html">Lunar Radio Telescopes</a></h1>
<p>
The spin-flip background is so difficult to detect - partly because of signals generated on Earth itself. Removing this contamination is a challenging problem, but it is much easier if the telescope can be shielded from the radio transmitters on Earth! The far side of the Moon offers just such an opportunity, and astronomers are hoping to use it as a platform to observe the Cosmic Dawn.
</p>
<p class="img_cred_body">
Image: concept of DAPPER on the moon.
<br />Credit: <a href="https://www.colorado.edu/project/dark-ages-polarimeter-pathfinder/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">NASA/JPL-Caltech/Jack Burns, Univ. of Colorado, Boulder</a>
</p>
</div>
<div class="in_text_image_left_5" style="background-image:url(images/jwst.jpg); background-repeat:no-repeat; background-position:center; background-size: cover; margin: 0;">
</div>
<div class="text_right_5" style="background-color: rgba(0, 0, 0, .4); margin: 0; padding:6%;">
<h1><a href="space_telescopes.html">Near-Infrared Space Telescopes</a></h1>
<p>
Although the first stars and galaxies were luminous in optical and even ultraviolet light, their light is stretched out, or redshifted, as it travels through the Universe toward Earth. For such distant sources, the stretching is so extreme that their ultraviolet light is shifted all the way to the near-infrared - a regime in which Earth's atmosphere makes observations difficult. Fortunately, the Hubble Space Telescope has near-infrared cameras that have taken exquisite pictures of distant galaxies, and studying these objects in even more detail is one of the key projects of the James Webb Space Telescope, due for launch in late 2021.
</p>
<p class="img_cred_body">
Image: James Webb Space Telescope concept
<br />Credit: <a href="https://www.jwst.nasa.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Northrop Grumman</a>
</p>
</div>
<div class="text_left_7" style="background-color: rgba(0, 255, 255, 0.50); margin: 0; padding:6%;">
<h1><a href="infrared_telescopes.html">Ground-based Near-Infrared Telescopes</a></h1>
<p>
Although the atmosphere presents challenges for observing in the near-infrared, it is far from impossible. Ground-based telescopes have the advantage of size, which determines how much light a telescope can collect from these distant galaxies. The Keck Telescopes and other large observatories (with mirrors about 30 feet, or 10 meters, across – four times more than Hubble's mirror) have helped us to understand some of the detailed properties of distant galaxies. This decade will see the construction of several even larger telescopes, up to 100 or so feet (or 30 meters) across – four times larger than the James Webb Space Telescope. This new generation of telescopes, such as the Thirty Meter Telescope, will be crucial for making careful measurements of galaxies in the Cosmic Dawn.
</p>
<p class="img_cred_body">
Image: Keck Observatory
<br />Credit: <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-awards-new-cooperative-agreement-to-w-m-keck-observatory" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Ethan Tweedie Photography/W. M. Keck Observatory</a>
</p>
</div>
<div class="in_text_image_right_7" style="background-image:url(images/keck.jpg); background-repeat:no-repeat; background-position:center; background-size: cover; margin:0;">
</div>
<div class="text_right_9" style="background-color: rgba(0, 255, 255, 0.075); margin:0; padding:6%;">
<h1><a href="other_telescopes.html">Other Telescopes</a></h1>
<p>
Astronomers are always seeking new ways to study the Cosmic Dawn. Some telescopes, such as SPHEREx, will map emission from galaxies with telescopes that are intentionally blurry – which, counterintuitively, allows them to observe the light from the faint galaxies normally hidden from view! Another exciting prospect is that future gravitational wave telescopes will detect the signatures of colliding black holes at enormous distances – even into the Cosmic Dawn. Meanwhile, microwave telescopes have already taught us about the Cosmic Dawn, and other radio telescopes are starting to observe the contents of galaxies during the first billion years of cosmic history.
</p>
<p class="img_cred_body">
Image: SPHEREx concept
<br />Credit: <a href="https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/missions/spherex" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">NASA JPL</a>
</p>
</div>
<div class="in_text_image_left_9" style="background-image:url(images/spherex.jpg); background-repeat:no-repeat; background-position:center; background-size: cover; margin:0;">
</div>
</article>
<div class="grid_1">
<! PAGE BEFORE / PAGE AFTER NAVIGATION >
<section class="page_nav">
<a href="our_galaxy.html">Previous: Our Galaxy: The Milky Way</a>
<a href="radio_telescopes.html" style="float: right;">Next: Radio Telescopes </a>
</section>
</div>
<div class="grid_2" style="">
<div class="mission"><span class="bold">Our Mission:</span> <br />The site is intended as a free educational resource about the frontiers of galaxy formation.</div>
<div class="creation">
<div class="creation_top">
<span class="bold">Creation and Funding:</span>
<br />Content and supervision by Professor Steven Furlanetto, website design by Erika Hoffman, funding and support from NASA NESS, NSF, & UCLA Physics and Astronomy.
</div>
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