/
Fig_SI_2_Cd_NO3.R
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Fig_SI_2_Cd_NO3.R
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#-----------------------------------------------------------------------------#
# Fig. SI.2 Main program #
# Modeling Cd speciation in the boundary layer, NO3- is the N source #
# #
# Lavoie M. 2018 #
#-----------------------------------------------------------------------------#
#------------------------------#
# Load packages #
#------------------------------#
library(ReacTran)
#-----------------------------------------------------------------------------#
# Function calculating Cd speciation in the boundary layer
# of chrysophyte cells.
# Inclusion of Cd 2+, Cd(OH)+, CdCO3
# NO3- is the N source and R = 5 and 30 um ; pH = 7, 5 and 8
# This function computes the concentration (mol/m^3) of CO2, HCO3-, CO32-, H+, OH-, Cd2+, CdOH+ and CdCO3 as a function of the distance
# from the cell surface assuming NO3- is the N source. This also computes relative changes in the boundary layer
# I : ionic strengh in mol/L
# R : radius (m)
# L : length of the layer surrounding the cell (m)
# pH : negative logarithm of H+ activity far from the cell
#--------------------------------------------------------------------------#
boundary_Cd_NO3<- function(I, R, L, pH) {
#-----------------------------------------------------------------------------#
# Part 1 : Bjerrum's ion-association model and metal speciation modeling #
# #
#-----------------------------------------------------------------------------#
#------------#
# Parameters #
#------------#
T <- 298 # Temperature in Kelvins (K)
I <- I # Ionic strength (mol/Kg)
# Calculating Kos for Cadmium and OH- (Cd2+ + OH- = CdOH-)
Z1 <- 2 # Absolute electric charge of the metal
Z2 <- 1 # Absolute electric charge of the ligand
ion_rad <- 95 # Effective ionic radius of the metal (pm) (Marcus, 1988)
water_diam <- 250 # Diameter of a water molecule (pm) (Shatzberg, 1967)
ligand_rad <- 110 # Effective ionic radius of the ligand (pm) (Sethi and Raghavan, 1988)
a <- 1E-10* (ion_rad + water_diam + ligand_rad) # minimum approach distance between the charge ions (cm)
source("func_Bjerrum_ion_assoc.R") # load the function calculating Kos using the Bjerrum's ion association model
Kos_CdOH <- fun_Kos(Z1=Z1, Z2=Z2, a=a, T=T)$Kos
# Calculating Kos for Cd and CO32- (Cd2+ + CO32- = CdCO3)
Z1 <- 2 # Absolute electric charge of the metal
Z2 <- 2 # Absolute electric charge of the ligand
ion_rad <- 95 # Effective ionic radius of the metal (pm) (Marcus, 1988)
water_diam <- 250 # Diameter of a water molecule (pm) (Shatzberg, 1967)
ligand_rad <- 300 # Effective ionic radius of the ligand (pm) (Sethi and Raghavan, 1998)
b <- 1E-10* (ion_rad + water_diam + ligand_rad) # minimum approach distance between the charge ions (cm)
source("func_Bjerrum_ion_assoc.R") # load the function calculating Kos using the Bjerrum's ion association model
Kos_CdCO3 <- fun_Kos(Z1=Z1, Z2=Z2, a=b, T=T)$Kos
# Calculating forward and backward rate constants for the equation : Cd2+ + OH- = CdOH+
k_w <- 3E+08 # Water loss rate constants (in s-1) for Cd2+ (for the formation of unidentate complexes) (Stumm and Morgan, 1996; Wilkinson et al 2004)
kf_CdOH <- Kos_CdOH * k_w
kf_CdOH
source("func_K_corr2_I.R") # Loading the function for ionic strength correction of equilibrium constant (K0 to K1)
K0_CdOH <- 10^3.91 # Thermodynamic equlibrium constant for CdOH+ formation
K1_CdOH <- K_corr2(K0=K0_CdOH, I=I, chargeA=2, chargeB=1, chargeC=1)$K1
K1_CdOH # Thermodynamic equilibrium constant corrected at I = I
log10(K1_CdOH)
kb_CdOH <- kf_CdOH / K1_CdOH
kb_CdOH
# Calculating kf and kb for the equation : Cd2+ + CO32- = CdCO3
k_w <- k_w # Water loss rate constants (in s-1) for Cd2+ (for the aquo-ions)
kf_CdCO3 <- Kos_CdCO3 * k_w # in L mol-1 s-1
kf_CdCO3
source("func_K_corr2_I.R") # Loading the function for ionic strength correction of equilibrium constant (K0 to K1)
K0_CdCO3 <- 10^4.36 # Thermodynamic equlibrium constant for CdCO3 formation
K1_CdCO3 <- K_corr2(K0=K0_CdCO3, I=I, chargeA=2, chargeB=2, chargeC=0)$K1
K1_CdCO3
log10(K1_CdCO3)
kb_CdCO3 <- kf_CdCO3 / K1_CdCO3 # in s-1
kb_CdCO3
# Converting units in m^3
kf_CdOH <- kf_CdOH / 1000 # Convert in m^3 mol-1 s-1
kb_CdOH <- kb_CdOH # no conversion (s-1)
kf_CdCO3 <- kf_CdCO3 / 1000 # Convert in m^3 mol-1 s-1
kb_CdCO3 # no conversion (s-1)
K1_CdOH <- K1_CdOH / 1000 # Convert in m^3 mol-1
K1_CdCO3 <- K1_CdCO3 / 1000 # Convert in m^3 mol-1
#-----------------------------------------------------------------------------#
# Part 2 : Reaction diffusion modeling #
#-----------------------------------------------------------------------------#
#------------------------------#
# MODEL #
#------------------------------#
#--- Partial derivative equations
boundary_layer <- function(t, state, parms) {
{ with( as.list( c(t, state, parms) ), {
# Reshape state variable as a 2D matrix
S <- matrix(nrow = X.grid$N, ncol = 8, data = state)
# Initialize dC/dt matrix
dCdt <- 0*S
# Rate of change for CO2
tran_1 <- tran.1D(C = S[,1], D = D, flux.up = F1, C.down = C[1], A = A.grid, dx = X.grid, full.output = T)
prod1 <- (kb[1] * S[,4] + kb[2]) * S[,2]
loss1 <- (kf[1] + kf[2] * S[,5]) * S[,1]
dCdt[,1] <- tran_1$dC + prod1 - loss1
# Rate of change for HCO3
tran_2 = tran.1D(C = S[,2], D = D, C.down = C[2], flux.up = 0, A = A.grid, dx = X.grid, full.output = T)
prod2 = (kf[1] * S[,1]) + (kf[2] * S[,1] * S[,5]) + (kf[4] * S[,3] * S[,4]) + (kb[5] * S[,3])
loss2 = (kb[1] * S[,4] * S[,2]) + (kb[2] * S[,2]) + (kb[4] * S[,2]) + (kf[5] * S[,2] * S[,5])
dCdt[,2] = tran_2$dC + prod2 - loss2
# Rate of change for CO3
tran_3 = tran.1D(C = S[,3], D = D, C.down = C[3], flux.up = 0, A = A.grid, dx = X.grid, full.output = T)
prod3 = (kb[4] * S[,2]) + (kf[5] * S[,2] * S[,5]) + (kb_CdCO3 * S[,8])
loss3 = (kf[4] * S[,4] * S[,3]) + (kb[5] * S[,3]) + (kf_CdCO3 * S[,6] * S[,3])
dCdt[,3] = tran_3$dC + prod3 - loss3
# flux.up = NO3_H since NO3- is the N source
# Rate of change for H
tran_4 = tran.1D(C = S[,4], D = D, C.down = C[4], flux.up = NO3_H, A = A.grid, dx = X.grid, full.output = T)
prod4 = (kb[4] - kb[1] * S[,4]) * S[,2] + (kf[1] * S[,1]) + kb[6]
loss4 = (kf[4] * S[,4] * S[,3]) + (kf[6] * S[,4] * S[,5])
dCdt[,4] = tran_4$dC + prod4 - loss4
# Rate of change for OH
tran_5 = tran.1D(C = S[,5], D = D, C.down = C[5], flux.up = 0, A = A.grid, dx = X.grid, full.output = T)
prod5 = (kb[2] * S[,2]) + (kb[5] * S[,3]) + kb[6] + (kb_CdOH * S[,7])
loss5 = (kf[2] * S[,1] * S[,5]) + (kf[5] * S[,2] * S[,5]) + (kf[6] * S[,4] * S[,5]) + (kf_CdOH * S[,6] * S[,5])
dCdt[,5] = tran_5$dC + prod5 - loss5
# Rate of change for Cd2+
tran_6 = tran.1D(C = S[,6], D = D, C.down = C[6], flux.up = 0, A = A.grid, dx = X.grid, full.output = T)
prod6 = (kb_CdOH * S[,7]) + (kb_CdCO3 * S[,8])
loss6 = (kf_CdOH * S[,6] * S[,5]) + (kf_CdCO3 * S[,6] * S[,3])
dCdt[,6] = tran_6$dC + prod6 - loss6
# Rate of change for CdOH
tran_7 = tran.1D(C = S[,7], D = D, C.down = C[7], flux.up = 0, A = A.grid, dx = X.grid, full.output = T)
prod7 = (kf_CdOH * S[,6] * S[,5])
loss7 = (kb_CdOH * S[,7])
dCdt[,7] = tran_7$dC + prod7 - loss7
# Rate of change for CdCO3
tran_8 = tran.1D(C = S[,8], D = D, C.down = C[8], flux.up = 0, A = A.grid, dx = X.grid, full.output = T)
prod8 = (kf_CdCO3 * S[,6] * S[,3])
loss8 = (kb_CdCO3 * S[,8])
dCdt[,8] = tran_8$dC + prod8 - loss8
return(list(dCdt = dCdt))
} )
}
}
#------------------------------#
# Model grid definition #
#------------------------------#
# Number of grid layer
N <- 10000
# Radius of the cell (m)
R <- R
# Model grid setup
X.grid <- setup.grid.1D(x.up = R, L = L, N = N) # x.up = radius of the cell
# Interface area
A.grid <- setup.prop.1D(grid = X.grid, func = function(r) 4*pi*r^2)
#------------------------------#
# Model parameters #
#------------------------------#
options(digits=15)
I <- I # Ionic strength (M)
# Calculation of CO2 concentration at I = 0 or I (independant of I)
pCO2 <- 10^-3.51 # CO2 partial presure (atm)
Kh <- 0.034 # Henry's constant (mol atm-1 L-1) at I =0 ; Correction of Kh at higher I can be neglected at low I (See Weiss, 1974)
CO2 <- pCO2 * Kh * 1000 # CO2 concentration (mol m-3)
# Fixed H+ and OH- concentrations at a given pH (mol m-3) and I = I
source("func_activity_I.R")
coeff1 <- coeff_act(charge = 1, I = I)$coeff_act
H <- (1/coeff1) * 1000 * (10^-pH)
OH <- (1/coeff1) * 1000 * 1E-14 / (10^-pH)
# Calculations of HCO3- concentration at I = I (mol m-3)
K1 <- 10^6.35 # Thermodynamic euilibrium constant of H+ + HCO3- = CO2
source("func_K_corr2_I.R") # Loading the function for ionic strength correction
K1_corr <- K_corr2(K0=K1, I=I, chargeA=1, chargeB=1, chargeC=0)
K1_corr
HCO3 <- (CO2 * 1000 * (1/K1_corr$K1))/H
# Calculations of CO32- concentration at I = I (mol m-3)
K2 <- 10^10.33 # Thermodynamic equilibrium constant of H+ + CO32- = HCO3-
K2_corr <- K_corr2(K0=K2, I=I, chargeA=1, chargeB=2, chargeC=1)
K2_corr
CO3 <- (HCO3 * 1000 * (1/K2_corr$K1)) / H
# Calculations of Cd, CdOH- , CdCO3 concentration at I = I (mol m-3)
# Cdtot <- Cd + CdOH + CdCO3
# K1_CdOH <- CdOH / (Cd * OH) ------> Cd * K1_CdOH - (1/OH ) * CdOH = 0
# K1_CdCO3 <- CdCO3 / (Cd * CO3) --------> Cd * K1_CdCO3 - (1/CO3) * CdCO3 = 0
#
# Thus, the system matrix : Cd + CdOH + CdCO3 = Cdtot
# K1_CdOH Cd - (1/OH) CdOH + 0 = 0
# K1_CdCO3 Cd + 0 - (1/CO3) * CdCO3 = 0
Cdtot <- 1E-09 * 1000 # in mol m-3
mat1 <- matrix(c(1, 1, 1, K1_CdOH, -1/OH, 0, K1_CdCO3, 0, -1/CO3), nrow=3, ncol=3, byrow = T)
mat2 <- matrix(c(Cdtot, 0, 0), nrow=3, ncol=1)
# Assuming that CdCO3 and CdOH << free CO32- and free OH, respectively
# i.e., Assuming no depletion in free OH and free CO32-
out <- solve(mat1,mat2)
Cd <- out[1]
CdOH <- out[2]
CdCO3 <- out[3]
# Concentration of CO2, HCO3-,CO3,H+,OH-, CdOH+, CdCO3 in bulk solution (mol m^-3) at I = I, T = 25 ?C and a given pH
C <- c(CO2, HCO3, CO3, H, OH, Cd, CdOH, CdCO3)
# Growth rate (u in d-1)
u <- 1.12 * ((R*1E+06)^-0.75)
# Uptake flux of CO2 by the cell (mol m-^2 s^-1)
F1 <- -(23230/3) * R * u / 86400
# Acido-basic reactions and NO3- assimilation
# With a Redfield ratio C:N of 106: 16, for each mol C assimilated, 0.15 mol H+ is removed from the medium if NO3- is the N source
NO3_H <- 0.15 * F1
# Diffusion coefficient of CO2,... (m^2 s^-1)
D <- 1.18E-09
# Rate constants at I=0
kb_I0 <- c(7.88029840776055E+01, 1.8E-04, NA, 6.13540983937499, 6.54216399387684E+05, 1.4) # m^3 mol^-1 s^-1; s^-1; ; s^-1; s^-1; mol m^-3 s^-1
kf_I0 <- c(3.52E-02, 8.04030465871734, NA, 1.31172736401427E+08, 3.06E+06, 1.4E+08) # s-^1; m^3 mol^-1 s^-1; ; m^3 mol^-1 s^-1; m^3 mol^-1 s^-1; m^3 mol^-1 s^-1
source("func_k_rate_cst_corr2_I.R") # Load the function converting rate constant at a given I
kwat_I0 <- 1E-14 # Ion product of water at 25 ?C
kwat <- kwat_I0 / (coeff1 * coeff1) # Conditional ion product of water
kb1 <- k_corr2(k0 = kb_I0[1], I = I, chargeA = 1, chargeB = 1, chargeC = 0)$k1 # HCO3- + H+ -> CO2
kb1
kf1 <- 1000* kb1/K1_corr$K1 # CO2 + H2O -> HCO3- + H+
kf1
kf2 <- k_corr2(k0 = kf_I0[2], I = I, chargeA = 0, chargeB = 1, chargeC = 1)$k1 # CO2 + OH- -> HCO3-
kf2
kb2 <- kf2 * K1_corr$K1 * kwat * 1000 # HCO3- -> CO2 + OH-
kb2
kf4 <- k_corr2(k0 = kf_I0[4], I = I, chargeA = 2, chargeB = 1, chargeC = 1)$k1 # CO32- + H+ -> HCO3-
kf4
kb4 <- kf4 * (1/(K2_corr$K1 / 1000)) # HCO3- -> CO32- + H+
kb4
kf5 <- k_corr2(k0 = kf_I0[5], I = I, chargeA = 1, chargeB = 1, chargeC = 2)$k1 # HCO3- + OH- <-> CO32- + H2O
kf5
kb5 <- kf5 * kwat * 1000 * 1000 * K2_corr$K1 / 1000 # CO32- + H2O -> HCO3- + OH-
kb5
kf6 <- k_corr2(k0 = kf_I0[6], I = I, chargeA = 1, chargeB = 1, chargeC = 0)$k1 # H+ + OH- -> H2O
kf6
kb6 <- kf6 * kwat * 1000 * 1000
kb6
# Rate constants at I = I
kb <- c(kb1, kb2, NA, kb4, kb5, kb6)
kf <- c(kf1, kf2, NA, kf4, kf5, kf6)
# Define parameters + grid definition vector
parms <- list(NO3_H=NO3_H, C=C, F1=F1, D=D, kb=kb, kf=kf, X.grid=X.grid, A.grid=A.grid)
#------------------------------#
# Model solution #
#------------------------------#
# Numerical solution at steady state
Cini <- matrix(C, nrow=N, ncol=8, byrow=T)
boundary <- steady.1D(y = Cini, func = boundary_layer, pos = TRUE, atol=1E-8, parms = parms, nspec = 8, names = c('CO2','HCO3','CO3','H','OH','Cd','CdOH','CdCO3'))
#------------------------------#
# Plotting output #
#------------------------------#
# Using S3 plot method of package rootSolve'
plotmult <- plot(boundary, grid = X.grid$x.mid, xlab = 'distance from centre, m', ylab = 'mol/m3', main = c('CO2', 'HCO3', 'CO3', 'H', 'OH', 'Cd', 'CdOH', 'CdCO3' ), ask = F, mfrow = c(1,1))
# Storing X-axis label
xlabel <- X.grid$x.mid
# Relative enrichment calculations
bmat <- unlist(boundary$y)
bmat1 <- as.matrix(bmat)
Cd_res <- bmat1[,6]
Cdenrich <- Cd_res / Cd
CdOH_res <- bmat1[,7]
CdOHenrich <- CdOH_res / CdOH
CdCO3_res <- bmat1[,8]
CdCO3enrich <- CdCO3_res / CdCO3
return(list(plotmult = plotmult, Cdenrich = Cdenrich, CdOHenrich = CdOHenrich, CdCO3enrich = CdCO3enrich, xlabel = xlabel))
}
#--------------------#
# Plots of Fig.SI.2 #
#--------------------#
#------------------------------------------------#
# Calculations at different pH at R = 5 um #
#------------------------------------------------#
carb_pH7 <- boundary_Cd_NO3(I = 0.001, R = 5E-06 , L = 150E-06, pH = 7)
carb_pH5 <- boundary_Cd_NO3(I = 0.001, R = 5E-06 , L = 150E-06, pH = 5)
carb_pH8 <- boundary_Cd_NO3(I = 0.001, R = 5E-06 , L = 150E-06, pH = 8)
# Plot of relative change (C/Co) of each Cd species at different pHs.
tiff( "FigS2_A.tiff", res = 100)
oldpar <- par(mfrow=c(2,2), mar=c(0,0,0,3), oma = c(4.1,4,4,0.4), las=1)
# Panel A : Cd2+ concentrations (r = 5 um)
plot(carb_pH7$xlabel*1E+06-5, carb_pH7$Cdenrich, type = "l", lty = 1, xaxt = "n", cex.axis = 0.8, xlim = c(0, 60), ylim = c(0.95, 1.05))
lines(carb_pH5$xlabel*1E+06-5, carb_pH5$Cdenrich, type = "l", lty = 2)
lines(carb_pH8$xlabel*1E+06-5, carb_pH8$Cdenrich, type = "l", lty = 3)
legend("bottomright", legend= c("pH7", "pH5", "pH8"), lty = c(1,2,3))
mtext(text = "A", side = 3, adj = 0.05, line = -1.4, font = 2)
mtext(text = "relative change", side=2, line = 2.8, outer=TRUE, las=0)
mtext(text = expression(paste(" distance from cell surface (", mu, "m)")), side = 1, line = 3, font = 2, outer=TRUE, las=1)
# Panel B : CdOH+ concentrations (r = 5 um)
plot(carb_pH7$xlabel*1E+06-5, carb_pH7$CdOHenrich, type = "l", lty = 1, cex.axis = 0.8, xlim = c(0, 60), ylim = c(0.7, 1.2))
lines(carb_pH5$xlabel*1E+06-5, carb_pH5$CdOHenrich, type = "l", lty = 2)
lines(carb_pH8$xlabel*1E+06-5, carb_pH8$CdOHenrich, type = "l", lty = 3)
mtext(text = "B", side = 3, adj = 0.03, line = -1.9, font = 2)
# Panel C : CdCO3 concentrations (r = 5 um)
plot(carb_pH7$xlabel*1E+06-5, carb_pH7$CdCO3enrich, type = "l", lty = 1, cex.axis = 0.8, xlim = c(0, 60), ylim = c(0.7, 1.2))
lines(carb_pH5$xlabel*1E+06-5, carb_pH5$CdCO3enrich, type = "l", lty = 2)
lines(carb_pH8$xlabel*1E+06-5, carb_pH8$CdCO3enrich, type = "l", lty = 3)
mtext(text = "C", side = 3, adj = 0.03, line = -1.9, font = 2)
par(oldpar)
dev.off()
#------------------------------------------------#
# Calculations at different pH at R = 30 um #
#------------------------------------------------#
carb_pH7 <- boundary_Cd_NO3(I = 0.001, R = 30E-06 , L = 900E-06, pH = 7)
carb_pH5 <- boundary_Cd_NO3(I = 0.001, R = 30E-06 , L = 900E-06, pH = 5)
carb_pH8 <- boundary_Cd_NO3(I = 0.001, R = 30E-06 , L = 900E-06, pH = 8)
# Plot of relative change (C/Co) of each chemical species at different pHs.
tiff( "FigS2_D.tiff", res = 100)
oldpar <- par(mfrow=c(2,2), mar=c(0,0,0,3), oma = c(4.1,4,4,0.4), las=1)
# Panel D : Cd2+ concentrations (r = 30 um)
plot(carb_pH7$xlabel*1E+06-30, carb_pH7$Cdenrich, type = "l", lty = 1, xaxt = "n", cex.axis = 0.8, xlim = c(0, 100), ylim = c(0.95, 1.05))
lines(carb_pH5$xlabel*1E+06-30, carb_pH5$Cdenrich, type = "l", lty = 2)
lines(carb_pH8$xlabel*1E+06-30, carb_pH8$Cdenrich, type = "l", lty = 3)
legend("bottomright", legend= c("pH7", "pH5", "pH8"), lty = c(1,2,3))
mtext(text = "D", side = 3, adj = 0.05, line = -1.4, font = 2)
mtext(text = "relative change", side=2, line = 2.8, outer=TRUE, las=0)
mtext(text = expression(paste(" distance from cell surface (", mu, "m)")), side = 1, line = 3, font = 2, outer=TRUE, las=1)
# Panel E : CdOH+ concentrations (r = 30 um)
plot(carb_pH7$xlabel*1E+06-30, carb_pH7$CdOHenrich, type = "l", lty = 1, cex.axis = 0.8, xlim = c(0, 100), ylim = c(0.8, 5))
lines(carb_pH5$xlabel*1E+06-30, carb_pH5$CdOHenrich, type = "l", lty = 2)
lines(carb_pH8$xlabel*1E+06-30, carb_pH8$CdOHenrich, type = "l", lty = 3)
mtext(text = "E", side = 3, adj = 0.12, line = -1.4, font = 2)
# Panel F : CdCO3 concentrations (r = 30 um)
plot(carb_pH7$xlabel*1E+06-30, carb_pH7$CdCO3enrich, type = "l", lty = 1, cex.axis = 0.8, xlim = c(0, 100), ylim = c(0.8, 5))
lines(carb_pH5$xlabel*1E+06-30, carb_pH5$CdCO3enrich, type = "l", lty = 2)
lines(carb_pH8$xlabel*1E+06-30, carb_pH8$CdCO3enrich, type = "l", lty = 3)
mtext(text = "F", side = 3, adj = 0.12, line = -1.4, font = 2)
par(oldpar)
dev.off()
#-------------------------------------#
# References #
#-------------------------------------#
# Marcus, Y., Volumes of aqueous hydrogen and hydroxide ions at 0 to 200 ?C. J. Chem. Phys. 2012, 137, 154501.
# Martell, A. E., Smith, R. M., Motekaitis, R. J. 2004. NIST critical stability constants of metal complexes, version 8. National Institute of Standards and Technology. Gaithersburg, MD. In Gaithersburg, MD, 2004.
# Schatzberg, P., On the Molecular Diameter of Water from Solubility and Diffusion Measurements. The Journal of Physical Chemistry 1967, 71, 4569-4570.
# Sethi, M. S.; Raghavan, P. S., Concepts and problems in inorganic chemistry. Discovery Publishing House, 1998; p 425 p.
# Stumm, W., Morgan, J. J. 2006. Aquatic Chemistry Chemical Equilibria and Rates in Natural Waters. Third ed.; United States of America, 1996; p 1022.
# Wilkinson, K. J., Buffle, J. 2004. Evaluation of Physicochemical Parameters and Processes for Modelling the Biological Uptake of Trace Metals in Environmental (Aquatic) Systems. In Physicochemical Kinetics and Transport at Biointerfaces, Leeuwen, H. P. v.; K?ster, W., Eds. John Wiley and Sons Ltd: England, 2004; Vol. IUPAC Series on Analytical and Physical Chemistry of Environmental Systems. Volume 9.