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Combinatory Categorical Grammar

Combinatory Categorical Grammar (CCG; Steedman, 2000) is a highly lexicalized formalism. The standard parsing model of Clark and Curran (2007) uses over 400 lexical categories (or supertags), compared to about 50 part-of-speech tags for typical parsers.

Example:

Vinken , 61 years old
N , N/N N (S[adj]\ NP)\ NP

Parsing

CCG parsing is evaluated in terms of labeled dependency F-score, which "take[s] into account the lexical category containing the dependency relation, the argument slot, the word associated with the lexical category, and the argument head word: All four must be correct to score a point" (Clark & Curran, 2007). Besides the word forms, some popular parsers (like the C&C parser) take POS tags as input. For fair comparison, systems should use automatically obtained POS as input, though some papers additionally report performance with oracle gold-standard POS features.

CCGBank

The CCGBank is a corpus of CCG derivations and dependency structures extracted from the Penn Treebank by Hockenmaier and Steedman (2007). Sections 2-21 are used for training, section 00 for development, and section 23 as in-domain test set.

Model Labeled F-score Paper / Source
Prange et al. (2021), non-constructive 90.91 Supertagging the Long Tail with Tree-Structured Decoding of Complex Categories
Bhargava and Penn (2020), constructive 90.9 Supertagging with CCG primitives
Prange et al. (2021), constructive 90.79 Supertagging the Long Tail with Tree-Structured Decoding of Complex Categories
Vaswani et al. (2016) 88.32 Supertagging with LSTMs
Lewis et al. (2016) 88.1 LSTM CCG Parsing
Xu et al. (2015) 87.04 CCG Supertagging with a Recurrent Neural Network
Kummerfeld et al. (2010), with additional unlabeled data 85.95 Faster Parsing by Supertagger Adaptation
Clark and Curran (2007) 85.45 Wide-Coverage Efficient Statistical Parsing with CCG and Log-Linear Models

Wikipedia

Model Accuracy Paper / Source
Xu et al. (2015) 82.49 CCG Supertagging with a Recurrent Neural Network
Kummerfeld et al. (2010), with additional unlabeled data 81.7 Faster Parsing by Supertagger Adaptation

Bioinfer

Model Bio specifc taggers? Accuracy Paper / Source
Kummerfeld et al. (2010), with additional unlabeled data Yes 82.3 Faster Parsing by Supertagger Adaptation
Rimell and Clark (2008) Yes 81.5 Adapting a Lexicalized-Grammar Parser to Contrasting Domains
Xu et al. (2015) No 77.74 CCG Supertagging with a Recurrent Neural Network
Kummerfeld et al. (2010), with additional unlabeled data No 76.1 Faster Parsing by Supertagger Adaptation
Rimell and Clark (2008) No 76.0 Adapting a Lexicalized-Grammar Parser to Contrasting Domains

Supertagging

To mitigate sparsity, CCG supertaggers have traditionally been trained only on categories that occur 10 times or more in the CCGBank training data, which amounts to the 425 most frequent categories. In more recent work, using this threshold is becoming less common. In any case, supertagging evaluation is always measured for all supertags occurring in the test set. Models are evaluated based on token accuracy.

Constructive supertagging

A constructive tagger models the internal structure of supertags rather than treating each supertag type as opaque (Kogkalidis et al., 2019). Supertags are constructed from minimal pieces (which for CCG are slashes and atomic categories) and there is no frequency cutoff.

CCGBank

Like for parsing, sections 2-21 are used for training, section 00 for development, and section 23 as in-domain test set.

Model Accuracy Paper / Source
Kogkalidis and Moortgat (2022), constructive 96.29 Geometry-Aware Supertagging with Heterogeneous Dynamic Convolutions
Tian et al. (2020), non-constructive 96.25 Supertagging Combinatory Categorial Grammar with Attentive Graph Convolutional Networks
Prange et al. (2021), non-constructive 96.22 Supertagging the Long Tail with Tree-Structured Decoding of Complex Categories
Prange et al. (2021), constructive 96.09 Supertagging the Long Tail with Tree-Structured Decoding of Complex Categories
Clark et al. (2018) 96.05 Semi-Supervised Sequence Modeling with Cross-View Training
Bhargava and Penn (2020), constructive 96.00 Supertagging with CCG primitives
Lewis et al. (2016) 94.7 LSTM CCG Parsing
Vaswani et al. (2016) 94.24 Supertagging with LSTMs
Low supervision (Søgaard and Goldberg, 2016) 93.26 Deep multi-task learning with low level tasks supervised at lower layers
Xu et al. (2015) 93.00 CCG Supertagging with a Recurrent Neural Network
Clark and Curran (2004) 92.00 The Importance of Supertagging for Wide-Coverage CCG Parsing (result from Lewis et al. (2016))

Rare and unseen supertags

Model Acc on tags seen 1-9 times Acc on unseen tags Paper / Source
Bhargava and Penn (2020), constructive - 5.00 Supertagging with CCG primitives
Prange et al. (2021), constructive 37.40 3.03 Supertagging the Long Tail with Tree-Structured Decoding of Complex Categories
Prange et al. (2021), non-constructive 23.17 0.00 Supertagging the Long Tail with Tree-Structured Decoding of Complex Categories
Kogkalidis and Moortgat (2022), constructive 34.45 4.55 Geometry-Aware Supertagging with Heterogeneous Dynamic Convolutions

Wikipedia

Model Accuracy Paper / Source
Prange et al. (2021), non-constructive 92.54 Supertagging the Long Tail with Tree-Structured Decoding of Complex Categories
Prange et al. (2021), constructive 92.46 Supertagging the Long Tail with Tree-Structured Decoding of Complex Categories
Xu et al. (2015) 90.00 CCG Supertagging with a Recurrent Neural Network

Conversion to PTB

There has been interest in converting CCG derivations to phrase structure parses for comparison with phrase structure parsers (since CCGBank is based on the PTB).

Model Accuracy Paper / Source
Kummerfeld et al. (2012) 96.30 Robust Conversion of CCG Derivations to Phrase Structure Trees
Zhang et al. (2012) 95.71 A Machine Learning Approach to Convert CCGbank to Penn Treebank
Clark and Curran (2009) 94.64 Comparing the Accuracy of CCG and Penn Treebank Parsers

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